The Eiffel Tower's Iconic Architecture

The Eiffel Tower is among the most recognized structures in the world.  Built to commemorate the Exposition Universelle in 1889, it towers above the rooftops of Paris - most of which are limited by zoning restrictions to seven stories.  Although it was heavily criticized at the time of construction, the tower has become an icon for Paris and all of France.  A marvel of its time, it is a look back to the industrializing world around the beginning of the 20th century.

Poster from Exposition Universelle

Marking the 100th anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, considered the beginning of the French Revolution, the Exposition Universelle was a World's Fair meant to exhibit the foremost technological innovations.  A contest was held to design a tower that would span 125 meters across at the base and stand 300 meters tall.  Of 107 entries, it was that of Gustave Eiffel that won.  Eiffel's two chief engineers, Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nouguier, designed a lattice-work structure based on wind-resistance, rather than aesthetics.  The trio hired architect Stephen Sauvestre to improve the tower's appearance, and he added the large characteristic arches which we observe today.  Erected in an impressively short 22 months, the tallest building in the world served as an entrance to the fair by the time it opened on May 6th, 1889.

 Above is a picture of the mastermind, Gustave Eiffel, with a picture to the right taken shortly after construction began.  It exemplifies the numerous hands and hours that were used during this project.

The construction is of puddle iron, a high-strength material used by Eiffel previously on bridges he'd built.  The curvature of the four lattices to meet at the top is designed in such a way that the force of winds is evenly distributed throughout the structure, making it extremely sturdy.  In winds the top of the tower moves only 6 cm.  In contrast, the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, MO moves three times as much and is less than two-thirds as tall.  Despite its efficiency of design, the 'skeletal' and utilitarian appearance of the tower was the object of heavy ridicule in the press and within the community.  Painters, sculptors, and architects openly collaborated "to protest ...in the name of French art and history under threat, against the erection in the very heart of our capital, of the useless and monstrous Eiffel Tower."  Eiffel countered, "Are we to believe that because one is an engineer, one is not preoccupied by beauty in one's constructions?" and that "the very conditions which give strength also conform to the hidden rules of harmony."  This view eventually won the day, as the tower was a smashing success at the fair, receiving over 2 million visitors during the six-month event.  

An aerial view at night shows just how aesthetically pleasing the tower can be.

Even today the Eiffel Tower may be seen from miles away and is huge tourist attraction yearly.

The elegant and simple design of this monument is truly a thing of beauty.  The absence of over-indulgent decor, embellished sculpture, or even finish work to cover the girders is in stark contrast to the surrounding Parisian architecture.  It can be argued that the tower was an arbiter of a new age, a metaphor of the slow and inevitable tide of technology washing away the traditionalist practices of an earlier time.  It is this simplicity that draws the eye to the tower, standing as a silent and immovable tribute to the industrial revolution. 

Belle Epoque: The Impact on Biology and Medinine Today

During the latter half of the 19th century the world began to change very quickly. As telegraphs and locomotives became commonplace, communication and travel became possible as never before. Scientific methodology and knowledge gained prestige in the eyes of modern society and research was pursued with newfound gusto. Consequently, this was a period of time that gave rise to many scientific advances that would eventually form our understanding of the natural world. Certainly not smallest among these was a deeper understanding of organisms, biology, and the processes by which life on our planet came to be.

Investigations into the origin of life began to take shape as experimental science and empiricism began to gain popularity with scholars, who had to reconcile the previously-accepted biblical age of Earth with newly-understood geological evidence to the contrary. Thus, naturalists began the endeavor of explaining geologic processes, including James Hutton and Charles Lyell. Among those influenced by this work was Charles Darwin, whose investigations of the variations of animal species culminated in the publishing of his work On the Origin of Species in 1859. In this work, Darwin explained the process of natural selection, but was unable to specify the exact way in which species changed from one generation to the next. This was done in 1865 by Gregor Mendel, who proved that physical traits are passed down from one generation to the next in a predictable manner. This, along with similar work done by Hugo Marie de Vries, formed the beginnings of the field of genetics.

A title page of the 1859 edition of The Origin of Species

Charles Darwin

A diagram of Mendel's work: dominant and recessive phenotypes.

A water pump in London similar to the one contaminated.

Another forward leap in knowledge occurred during this time period in the field of disease research and prevention. Prior the mid-19th century infections were attributed to the inhalation or ingestion of "miasma," which was vaguely defined as bad air from decomposing organic matter. Prompted by a cholera outbreak in London in 1854, John Snow demonstrated this to be false, and stopped the outbreak by identifying a single infectious water pump. Louis Pasteur also developed the field microbiology by systematically proving that fermentation and bacterial growth were caused by micro-organisms, as opposed to the accepted principle of spontaneous generation. It was these studies, conducted in the 1860s and 1870s, that led Pasteur to develop vaccines, immunizations, and a method to extend the shelf life of perishable foods like beer and milk. He was also instrumental in causing physicians to sterilize their hands and equipment between patients. Another notable figure is Robert Koch, who identified the causative agents of anthrax and tuberculosis. During the mid-19th century, tuberculosis was responsible for 1 out of every 7 deaths. Koch also furthered the field of microbiology by developing a series of postulates to identify the relationship between a microbe and it's resulting disease. Using them, Koch's students found the organisms that cause bubonic plague, typhoid, pneumonia, syphilis, and many more.

The Institute of Pasteur de Lille, which honors Louis Pasteur and his many great accomplishments.

 The concepts pioneered by these and others in the fields of medicine and biology form an immeasurably crucial part of our understanding of medical science today. This understanding is responsible for the development of cures to diseases, vaccines, and gene therapies. Millions of people around the globe have been helped or saved by the technologies that were being discovered in the late 19th century.